انجمن هنرهای نمایشی ایران تئاتر 17350235 13 2 2026 08 23 The Institution of Ritual Performance and Its Functions: A Sociological Analysis of Ta’ziyeh in the Naseri Era نهادِ نمایش آیینی و کارکردهای آن: تحلیل جامعه ‎شناختی تعزیه در عصر ناصری 87 103 246866 10.22034/theater.2026.579136.1167 FA فاطمه درخشان استادیار، گروه جامعه ‎شناسی، دانشکدۀ علوم اجتماعی، دانشگاه علامه طباطبائی، تهران، ایران. 0000-0003-3929-5427 مریم کریمی کارشناس ارشد رشتۀ پژوهش هنر، دانشکدۀ هنر، دانشگاه بین‎المللی سوره، تهران، ایران. Journal Article 2026 04 24 The Ta’ziyeh, a poetic, musical, and profoundly ritualistic performance, emerged from the heart of Shia mourning traditions and is centered upon the tragic and spiritually charged events of Ashura, the martyrdom of Imam Ḥusayn and his companions. This ritual performance, which uniquely and inextricably blends elements of religion, art, ethics, and complex social relations into a single, living, and dynamic whole, reached its unparalleled zenith during the fifty-year reign of Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, a transformative period often designated by scholars as the “Golden Age” of the Ta’ziyeh. During this era, it evolved from a simple, spontaneous, and locally organized form of popular devotion into a multifaceted, highly organized, and state-supported “ritual performance institution” firmly established at the very heart of Iran’s urban, political, and cultural life, most notably in the newly constructed capital, Tehran. This period, which coincided with the initial, often unsettling signs of modernization, the increasing penetration of Western culture, the emergence of new media such as the press and photography, and the onset of profound socio-economic transformations, provided an unparalleled and fertile context for the flourishing of this ritual performance. It was a context in which the deeply conflicting forces of raw emotion and calculated rationality, deeply held popular beliefs and overarching state policies, and time-honored indigenous art forms and novel foreign influences engaged in a dynamic, tense, and creatively productive interaction, making the Ta’ziyeh a unique arena for cultural negotiation and symbolic struggle. The present study, adopting a rigorous qualitative approach and a systematic historical-documentary method, undertakes an in-depth examination of the social functions of the Ta’ziyeh in the Naseri era, moving beyond purely descriptive or historical accounts. It specifically investigates the intricate and multi-layered ways in which this institutionalized ritual performance was deeply intertwined with the structures of political power, the active reproduction and public performance of a collective Shia-Iranian identity, and the maintenance and strengthening of social cohesion during a critical historical juncture. The theoretical framework of this research is meticulously grounded in a novel and productive synthesis of two seminal sociological and anthropological theories: Victor Turner’s powerful and influential concepts of “liminality,” “communitas,” and “anti-structure,” which explain the dynamics of ritual processes, and Ferdinand Tönnies’ classic and enduring dichotomy of “Gemeinschaft/Gesellschaft” (community/society), which provides a lens for understanding different forms of social organization. This synthesis is not a mere juxtaposition of concepts but is formally and systematically articulated through the original analytical model of the “liminal institution”, which was specifically devised and formulated in this research to capture the paradoxical and dual nature of the Ta’ziyeh in its historical context. This analytical model demonstrates with clarity and precision that the Ta’ziyeh in the Naseri era was far more than a simple religious performance or a collective mourning ritual; rather, it constituted a complex “liminal institution” that operated simultaneously and effectively on two distinct but interconnected levels. At the macro-social level, the formal rationality, organizational structure, and calculated logic of “Gesellschaft”—manifested concretely in the construction and spatial organization of the grand Takyeh Dowlat (the Royal Theater); the systematic state funding and court patronage; the formation and professionalization of dedicated performance troupes; the meticulous division of labor; and the written, authored scripts—were strategically and purposefully placed in the service of reproducing the most deeply affective, emotionally charged, and spiritually binding elements of “Gemeinschaft,” including profound social solidarity, a commonly held and intensely felt religious faith, and the enduring, pre-modern bonds of tradition and kinship. In other words, the cold, calculating rationality of the modernizing state and society was paradoxically employed to manufacture, sustain, and amplify the warm, organic solidarity of traditional community, creating a deeply paradoxical but highly functional amalgamation. At the micro-social and experiential level, by creating a powerful and immersive “liminal space” within the carefully designed architectural container of the Takyeh Dowlat, the institution provided an intense, shared, and multi-sensory experience of “communitas” for spectators drawn from the most diverse and stratified social classes, from the Shah and his courtiers down to the humblest urban and rural dwellers, thereby temporarily dissolving or suspending the rigid, hierarchical, and seemingly immutable social boundaries and distinctions that governed everyday life in Qajar Iran. The findings of this research reveal a crucial and original insight: this seemingly liberating and equalizing communitas was, in fact, a carefully “controlled anti-structure,” a concept that constitutes one of the key theoretical innovations of this study. The profoundly egalitarian, justice-seeking, and inherently anti-structural emotional and symbolic energy embedded in the sacred narrative of Ashura—with its stark moral contrast between the righteous, oppressed Imam Ḥusayn and the tyrannical, illegitimate Caliph Yazid—was not allowed to flow freely or to translate into any form of genuine political threat to the established order. Rather, it was strategically acknowledged, publicly honored, and even spectacularly celebrated, but simultaneously and effectively harnessed, channeled, and contained within the meticulously managed, architecturally hierarchical, and symbolically charged space of the Takyeh Dowlat, under the watchful and legitimizing symbolic presence of Naser al-Din Shah himself, who watched the performance from a special royal chamber. Through this ingenious and largely implicit mechanism of ritual management and spatial control, the potentially subversive and destabilizing energy of the Ashura narrative was deftly transformed from a latent threat to the political order into a powerful and renewable source for the continuous reproduction, reinforcement, and public affirmation of monarchical legitimacy and the sanctified authority of the Qajar state apparatus. The documentary sources analyzed in this study, including the memoirs of courtiers such as Etemad al-Salṭanah’s “Ḥujjat al-Sa’ada fi Ḥujjat al-Shahada,” the travelogues of foreign diplomats like Count de Gobineau, and the remaining visual evidence such as Kamal al-Mulk’s paintings and photographs of the Takyeh Dowlat, consistently attest to the central role of the Ta’ziyeh in the cultural and political landscape of the Naseri period. These sources reveal not only the immense scale and lavish expenditure devoted to the performances, but also the active and visible participation of the Shah himself, who attended the Ta’ziyeh regularly, and the diverse social composition of the audiences, which included courtiers, religious scholars, merchants, guild members, artisans, common urban dwellers, and even, on occasion, non-Muslim religious minorities such as Christians and Zoroastrians. This broad and heterogeneous participation transformed the Ta’ziyeh into a veritable microcosm of Qajar society, a space where the hierarchical social order was both visibly affirmed through segregated seating arrangements and momentarily transcended through the shared, emotionally overwhelming experience of collective grief and sacred lamentation. The professionalization of the performers, some of whom achieved considerable fame and were directly patronized by the court, alongside the literary refinement of the scripts by court poets and scribes, further illustrates the institutionalization and rationalization of what had once been a predominantly folk and spontaneous ritual practice, reinforcing its dual character as both a living tradition of the community and a calculated instrument of the state. Thus, the study concludes that the Ta’ziyeh in the Naseri era functioned as a sophisticated and highly effective “ritual-political technology,” a concept that encapsulates the seamless fusion of sacred ritual practice and calculated political utility. By masterfully and paradoxically intertwining the seemingly opposed forces of modern instrumental logic and enduring traditional structures, it successfully engendered a distinct, indigenous, and historically specific form of “ritualistic modernity” in Iran. This was a modernity that did not advance through the wholesale elimination, suppression, or secular rejection of deeply rooted Shia traditions, as predicted by classical, linear theories of modernization. Instead, it advanced through the strategic appropriation, calculated rationalization, spectacular elaboration, and symbolic direction and control of the most powerful, emotionally resonant, and socially embedded traditional institutions. These comprehensive findings demonstrate that, on the critical historical threshold of Iran’s complex and often turbulent entry into modern social, political, and cultural relations, the Ta’ziyeh played a decisive, multifaceted, and previously under-analyzed role in actively and continuously reproducing a deeply felt Shia-Iranian collective identity, powerfully strengthening the fabric of social cohesion across class and regional lines, and effectively legitimizing the ruling political structure by presenting it as the divinely sanctioned protector and patron of the nation’s most sacred rituals and narratives. تعزیه، نمایشی آیینی، منظوم و موسیقایی، از دل عزاداری‎های شیعی برخاسته و حول واقعۀ عاشورا شکل گرفته است. این نمایش آیینی که عناصر دین، هنر، اخلاق و مناسبات اجتماعی را در خود می‎آمیزد، در دوران پنجاه‎سالۀ سلطنت ناصرالدین‎شاه قاجار به اوج شکوفایی خود رسید و از شکلی ساده و خودجوش به «نهاد نمایش آیینی» سازمان‎یافته و چندوجهی در کانون حیات شهری و سیاسی ایران تبدیل و تثبیت شد. این دوره که هم‎زمان با نخستین نشانه‎های مدرنیزاسیون، نفوذ فرهنگ غربی، ظهور رسانه‎های نوین و آغاز دگرگونی‎های اجتماعی_اقتصادی بود، بستری بی‎نظیر برای بالندگی این نمایش آیینی فراهم آورد؛ بستری که در آن نیروهای متعارض عاطفه و عقلانیت، باورهای مردمی و سیاست‎های حکومتی، و هنر بومی و تأثیرات فرهنگی در تعامل و کشمکشی پویا با یکدیگر قرار می‎گرفتند. پژوهش حاضر با رویکرد کیفی و روش تاریخی_اسنادی، کارکردهای اجتماعی تعزیه در عصر ناصری را واکاوی می‎کند و چگونگی پیوند این نهاد نمایشی با ساختارهای قدرت، بازتولید هویت جمعی و انسجام اجتماعی را بررسی می‎نماید. چارچوب نظری بر پایۀ تلفیق مفاهیم «فضای آستانه‎ای، جماعت و ضدساختار» از ویکتور ترنر و دوگانۀ «اجتماع/جامعه» از فردیناند تونیس استوار است و در قالب مدل تحلیلی «نهاد آستانه‎ای» صورت‎بندی شده است. این مدل نشان می‎دهد که تعزیه در عصر ناصری نه صرفاً یک نمایش مذهبی، که نهادی بود که هم‎زمان در دو سطح کلان و خرد عمل می‎کرد: در سطح کلان، عقلانیتِ «جامعه» (تکیه دولت، تأمین مالی دولتی، گروه‎های حرفه‎ای) در خدمت بازتولید عاطفی‎ترین عناصرِ «اجتماع» (همبستگی، ایمان مشترک، پیوندهای سنتی) قرار می‎گرفت و در سطح خرد، با خلق فضای آستانه‎ای، تجربه‎ای از جماعت را برای تماشاگران طبقات گوناگون فراهم می‎کرد. یافته‎ها نشان می‎دهد که این جماعت یک «ضدساختار مهارشده» بود؛ انرژی برابری‎خواهانه و ضدساختاریِ نهفته در روایت عاشورا، در ساختار کاملاً کنترل‎شدۀ تکیه دولت و با حضور نمادین شاه، مهار می‎گردید و به جای تهدید نظم سیاسی، به منبعی برای بازتولید مشروعیت سلطنت تبدیل می‎شد. اسناد تاریخی بررسی‎شده، از جمله خاطرات درباریان، سفرنامه‎های دیپلمات‎های خارجی، و تصاویر برجای‎مانده از تکیه دولت، به روشنی گواهی می‎دهند که این نهاد نمایشی چگونه به طور هم‎زمان هم همبستگی اجتماعی را در میان اقشار گوناگون تقویت می‎کرد و هم با مدیریت عواطف جمعی، پایه‎های اقتدار سیاسی دربار قاجار را تحکیم می‎بخشید. بدین‎ترتیب، تعزیه در عصر ناصری یک «فناوری سیاسی-آیینی» بود که با درهم‎تنیدگی منطق مدرن و ساختار سنت، نوعی «مدرنیتۀ آیینی» خاص ایران را رقم زد؛ مدرنیته‎ای که نه با حذف سنت، که با مصادره، عقلانی‎سازی و هدایت نمادینِ قدرتمندترین نهادهای سنتی پیش می‎رفت. این یافته‎ها نشان می‎دهد که تعزیه در آستانۀ ورود ایران به مناسبات مدرن، نقشی تعیین‎کننده در بازتولید هویت جمعی شیعی_ایرانی، تقویت انسجام اجتماعی و مشروعیت‎بخشی به ساختار سیاسی حاکم ایفا می‎کرد.

https://journal.theater.ir/article_246866_ac91109b7d19525d900b5db07661c3b9.pdf